Legacies of Slavery as seen through Education in the American South

An Ongoing Fight for Educational Equity

Post emancipation, the struggle for educational rights did not end within the Black community. For recently freed African Americans, literacy was a crucial first step in independence and self-sustainability. Education established African Americans as civic members of society, opened up employment opportunities, allowed for wealth accumulation, enabled property ownership, and most importantly was necessary for protecting freedoms and rights. However systemic racism and socioeconomic hardships has left the African American education system weak and the fight for educational equity continues even today in the 21st century.

The Evolution of African American Education: Challenges of Reconstruction and Jim Crow

Immediately after the end of the Civil War during reconstruction, educational opportunities for African Americans remained low due to the lack of qualified teachers and economic limitations. Many African American communities could not afford to pay teachers, and individual families often did not send their children to school because they needed them to work for a wage. With the end of reconstruction and the beginning of the Jim Crow era, new challenges were faced by African Americans trying to get an education. In 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson, a landmark supreme court case, ruled in favor of the “separate but equal” doctrine, protecting Jim Crow Laws and the continuation of racial segregation in America (Library of Congress). As a result, schools remained segregated. During this time, African Americans were not granted the same educational opportunities as their White counterparts. African American schools were fewer and more widespread, making educational access limited, and the institutions that did exist were commonly underfunded. However, despite all barriers African Americans continued to recognize the importance of education and fight for it as a right. As said by Booker T. Washington, “If you can’t read it’s going to be hard to realize a dream.” Booker T. Washington was an advocate for education within the Black community and regarded education as a means of “lifting the veil of ignorance” (National Museum of African American History and Culture).

Segregation of facilities upheld by ruling Plessy v. Ferguson (“History, A&E Television Networks”).

Empowerment of African Americans Through Education

In the almost 40 years after emancipation prior to 20^th century, over 90 higher education institutions were founded exclusively for African Americans in the wake of segregation. These schools, referred to as Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), promoted enlightenment and self-discovery that was previously denied to African Americans and enslaved individuals. HBCUs also acted as a protector of African American history, culture, and traditions, ensuring that these were passed down from generation to generation. While there were flaws in the argument for Black Colleges and Universities, overall these institutions were a victory in the ongoing battle for equal education rights in the Black community and helped pull many African Americans out of a cycle of impoverishment by providing them with the skills, experiences, and networks necessary to establish a successful career (National Museum of African American History and Culture).

Charlotte Hawkins Brown: A Pioneer for African American Education

Because education has consistently been seen as a form of freedom to the descendants of enslaved and formerly enslaved people, Black Americans have long fought for equal access to education and recognized its value within their communities. An example of African Americans’ resilience to educational oppression is seen through the life work of Charlotte Hawkins Brown. Brown, the descendant of slaves who dedicated her life to education and learning, opened a school for middle class Black children in 1902, in Sedalia, North Carolina (Hornsby-Gutting, Wilson, 300). Brown’s school was one of the most distinguished learning institutes for African Americans during the time period and was innovative in its teachings. Over the course of its operation the school evolved from predominately vocational learning to a liberal arts curriculum that prioritized math, science, history, and literacy. This was deviation from what was considered a typical education for African Americans in the United States at the time (Hornsby-Gutting, Wilson, 300). Brown led a life advocating for the educational freedom of African Americans in rural North Carolina, and used her intelligence in the continued fight for equality during the Jim Crow Era.

Education pioneer Charlotte Hawkins Brown (“The First Lady of Social Graces”).

The Impact of Systemic Racism and Socioeconomic Disparities on Education Inequality

Despite the fight for educational rights both pre and post emancipation, slavery has left a legacy of racial disparity in the U.S. education system that is perpetuated by gaps in socioeconomic status between White and Black Americans today. This means that for African Americans the battle for educational equality is ongoing. Today, unequal distribution of resources, implicit bias, and generational wealth gaps create educational disparities in the Black community. Despite the integration of schools in America over 50 years ago, many public schools today remain ethnically and racially isolated due to the district system and economic barriers. In 2024, 58% of Black students in the U.S. attended schools where over 75% of their classmates shared their race or ethnicity (The Annie E. Casey Foundation). Many of these schools, located in areas that are predominately Black and have higher rates of poverty, are underfunded meaning that there is a lack of current textbooks, updated technology, school supplies, and high-quality administrators. In fact, African Americans in the U.S. experience some of the highest poverty rates, second only to Native Americans (Kaiser Family Foundation). These economic obstacles further exacerbate educational inequality in the 21st century. The Economic Policy Institute found that while less than one in three white students attended a high-poverty school in the U.S. more than seven in ten black students did (Garcia). As a result of the discrepancy in education quality, 84% of Black students in America read below their grade proficiency level and 91% tested below their grade level for math (The Annie E. Casey Foundation). This statement highlights how systemic inequities in education disproportionately affect Black students and their academic outcomes.  

Students protesting against inequality in the U.S. education system (McCann, 2020).

We also see that Black students are more likely to face disciplinary action in school than their White counterparts. Across America Black students have high rates of suspension and expulsion. While this can lead to disengagement in the classroom and academic struggle it also doubles the risk of high school dropout. On average, only 81% of the nation’s Black students graduate from high school (The Annie E. Casey Foundation). This statistic is significant not only because a high school diploma is required for almost any job in America, but also because dropping out of high school triples a student’s risk of incarceration or involvement with the U.S. justice system (The Annie E. Casey Foundation). This shows how racially biased disciplinary practices create widespread consequences for Black students in the U.S. and perpetuate a cycle of educational inequity.  

Integrated schools in the U.S after Brown v. Board of Education ruling (Romeu and Pineda, 2021).

In 2017, The Economic Policy Institute conducted a study which found that socioeconomic status is one of the most influential factors in academic success. Extensive research showed that the development of cognitive and social skills early on in life shapes the future success of an individual and the underdevelopment of these skills leads to “lowered economic prospects later in life”(García and Weiss). However, because predominantly Black schools in America are underfunded and lack appropriate resources, the growth of these crucial skills is often stunted. A national study notes that children with low socioeconomic status are on average 5 years behind the literacy skills of their high-income classmates (The Annie E. Casey Foundation). Without access to adequate primary education, students are less likely to get a college degree. The same study found that children with a high socioeconomic status are 8 times more likely to graduate from college than children with a low socioeconomic status (The Annie E. Casey Foundation). Without a higher education individuals are subject to lower salaries and often get stuck in low-income demographics. As a result of their economic status, their children are less likely to get a proper primary education and go on to attend college. The Center for Education Policy Analysis at Stanford University notes, “Black and His­pan­ic children’s par­ents typ­i­cal­ly have low­er incomes and low­er lev­els of edu­ca­tion­al attain­ment than white children’s par­ents. Because high­er-income and more-edu­cat­ed fam­i­lies typ­i­cal­ly can pro­vide more edu­ca­tion­al oppor­tu­ni­ties for their chil­dren, fam­i­ly socioe­co­nom­ic resources are strong­ly relat­ed to edu­ca­tion­al outcomes” (The Annie E. Casey Foundation). Thus, a cycle of poverty, low socioeconomic status, and below-average education levels is perpetuated and passed down from generation to generation (García and Weiss). 

Depiction of an inner city school in New York. These institutions that have historically been racially isolated and underfunded (Jacobson, 2022).

Addressing the Legacy of Slavery in Educational Inequity

Slavery has left a profound and lasting legacy on the United Sates, shaping both the social and economic fabric of our society. The impact of slavery, compounded by the racist systems that followed, continues to affect African Americans everyday. Racial inequality persists, creating generational challenges that are near impossible to overcome, especially in the realm of education and socioeconomic status. Because of the dark stain of slavery and racism on our nation, conscious, continuous efforts must be implemented in order to mend deep-rooted inequities.

One way that Virginia is working towards educational equality in the wake of slavery is with reparations. Educational reparations which provide financial aid and scholarships to universities in Virginia for African American students are one way that the state is trying to educate and repair a society broken by the legacies of slavery. In 2021, the previous governor of Virginia Ralph Northham signed a piece of legislation outlining the establishment of the Enslaved Ancestors College Access Scholarship and Memorial Programs (Bromley). Bomley states, “[The bill] requires five public universities that were established before the end of the Civil War and used enslaved laborers to build their institutions to address their history with slavery, including searching for enslaved individuals and their descendants. They are required to make reparations through scholarships or community-based economic development and memorial programs, starting in 2022” (Bromley). These educational reparations don’t right the wrongs of slavery and institutionalized racism in the United States, but they are a step towards taking responsibility for them and acknowledging the lasting effects of slavery that are still felt by African Americans today. While reparations hold potential for addressing educational inequities stemming from slavery and racism, they are only a small step. Ongoing policy changes and sustained efforts are needed across the nation to achieve meaningful, lasting progress.

University of Virginia signs document that focuses on reparations for descendants of enslaved workers (Bromley, 2021).

Then and Now: Breaking the Cycle

The legacy of slavery and the deep-seated systemic racism that followed it continues to shape educational opportunities for Black Americans today. Despite advancements in African American education, such as the establishment of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and the work of pioneers like Charlotte Hawkins Brown, inequality remains prevalent, particularly due to socioeconomic disparities and racial biases in the U.S. education system. While efforts like reparations in Virginia offer a glimmer of hope, they represent only a small part of the larger solution needed to address generational educational inequities. Permanent change will require continued, comprehensive policy implementation and sustained commitment to break the cycle of disadvantage and ensure equal access to quality education for all. Only through these ongoing efforts can we hope to close the gap created by centuries of enslavement and systemic oppression.

Sources

Baker, Regina S. “The Historical Racial Regime and Racial Inequality in Poverty in the American South.” American Journal of Sociology, vol. 127, no. 6, May 2022, pp. 1721–81, https://doi.org/10.1086/719653.

Bromley, Anne E. “New Law, Signed at UVA, Focuses on Reparations for Descendants of Enslaved Workers.” News.virginia.edu, 5 May 2021, news.virginia.edu/content/new-law-signed-uva-focuses-reparations-descendants-enslaved-workers.

DevTech Systems. “Racial Integration of Schools in the United States.” DevTech Systems, 26 Feb. 2021, https://devtechsys.com/insights/2021/02/26/racial-integration-of-schools-in-the-united-states/.

Franklin, V. P. “Introduction: Cultural Capital and African American Education.” The Journal of African American History, vol. 87, 2002, pp. 175–81. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1562461. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025.

Garcia, Emma. “Schools Are Still Segregated, and Black Children Are Paying a Price.” Economic Policy Institute, Economic Policy Institute, 12 Feb. 2020, www.epi.org/publication/schools-are-still-segregated-and-black-children-are-paying-a-price/.

Harris, Danae. “68 Years After Brown, Schools Still Highly Segregated: 4 Takeaways from Study.” The 74 Million, 17 May 2022, www.the74million.org/article/68-years-after-brown-schools-still-highly-segregated-4-takeaways-from-study/.

History.com Editors. “Plessy v. Ferguson.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 29 Oct. 2009, https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/plessy-v-ferguson.

Hornsby-Gutting, Angela, and Charles Reagan Wilson. “Brown, Charlotte Hawkins: (1883–1961) ACTIVIST AND EDUCATOR.” The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 13: Gender, edited by NANCY BERCAW and TED OWNBY, University of North Carolina Press, 2009, pp. 299–301. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469616728_bercaw.80. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025.

Kaiser Family Foundation. “Poverty Rate by Race/Ethnicity.” The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 4 Dec. 2019, www.kff.org/other/state-indicator/poverty-rate-by-raceethnicity/?currentTimeframe=0&sortModel=%7B%22colId%22:%22Location%22.

Library of Congress. “Plessy v. Ferguson: Primary Source Set.” Chronicling America, https://guides.loc.gov/chronicling-america-plessy-ferguson#:~:text=The%20U.S.%20Supreme%20Court%20changes,for%20the%20next%20fifty%20years. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025.

McCann, Róise. “Student Protest Exposes Inequality in the Education System.” Socialist Party, 21 Sept. 2020, www.socialistpartyni.org/analysis-news/local/student-protest-expose-inequality-in-the-education-system/.

National Museum of African American History and Culture. “Emancipation and Educating the Newly Freed.” NMAAHC, Smithsonian Institution, https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/emancipation-and-educating-newly-freed. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025.

National Park Service. “African Americans and Education during Reconstruction: The Tolson’s Chapel Schools.” National Park Service, https://www.nps.gov/articles/african-americans-and-education-during-reconstruction-the-tolson-s-chapel-schools.htm. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025.

Scott, Joan Wallach. “The Movement for Reparations for Slavery in the United States.” In the Name of History, Central European University Press, 2020, pp. 61–94. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7829/j.ctv16f6cq3.6. Accessed 22 Jan. 2025.

Virginia and Emancipation 

When thinking about the history of slavery and emancipation in Virginia it is far from brief. From plantation slavery to the civil war to the reconstruction era, Virginia’s role was significant in each major phase. While all enslaved people were finally freed in the state in 1865 with the end of the civil war and the passing of the 13^th amendment, it was a long road to get there.  

Emancipation Education in a Nutshell

Think about what you know when it comes to Emancipation in the United States, and also the American Civil War in general. Most kids in the United States learn about the Civil War in grades 5-8 (Sanchez). Because of your education, you probably think of the Emancipation Proclamation, and how with a stroke of his pen Lincoln managed to free all of the enslaved people in the Union. You probably think about the fundamentals of the American Civil War, and how the Union was broken over the South and their slave-based agricultural economy. You’ve probably been asked what caused the American Civil War, unable to give a single direct answer. You probably think of  Emancipation as a single act. Despite what we all learned as children in America about our own history and the history of the Civil War and Emancipation, these topics are more complex than meets the eye. The Civil War was not fought over state’s rights, it was fought over the institution of slavery. Emancipation was not a single act. It was a years-long process, and several different kinds of people were involved with this extensive and important process, with many relative successes and failures. The United States needs to cultivate a more extensive Civil War education that focuses on unpacking Emancipation and the socio-political realities of the war. This blog post will provide a case study on emancipation, specifically in the formerly confederate state of Virginia.

The Emancipation Proclamation

The Civil War 

The long journey towards freedom in Virginia and the nation as a whole began in 1861 when Lincoln became President. With the election of the Republican candidate, the southern states realized that even with all their combined votes they still did not have enough power to elect a president that had their interests in mind and feared that slavery, an institution they relied on for economic prosperity, was going to be taken away from them. Realizing this lack of power left them vulnerable, South Carolina seceded from the Union followed soon after by Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. In April of 1861 after the Battle of Fort Sumter, a full blown Civil War broke out between the Union and the Confederate states. It was after this first battle of the war that the majority of the border states decided to leave the Union and join the Confederacy, Virginia among them (McPherson). Virginia’s stance during the Civil War was unique because not only was it a border state but also it was also split in belief with half of the state loyal to the Confederate cause and the other half loyal to the Union. In 1863 the Unionist counties in the west of Virginia broke off from the state and rejoined the Union as the new state of West Virginia (Tarter). In the same year Lincoln wrote and passed the Emancipation Proclamation. While this document is historically known for freeing enslaved people in America, the reality is that it did not actually free many people at all. As seen in the Emancipation Proclamation Lincoln writes, “…all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free…” (Lincoln). What Lincoln meant by this is that the Emancipation Proclamation only freed enslaved people in Confederate states and did not apply to slaves held in states still a part of the Union. Thus, slavery was allowed to continue in West Virginia and while the emancipation did free slaves in Confederate Virginia, this freedom could only be enforced in regions that the Union army controlled. 

Resistance and Rebellion Against Slavery 

Although the Emancipation Proclamation is what technically freed enslaved people in Confederate Virginia, slaves did not wait for 1863 or an executive order to start fighting for their freedom. Slaves, in Virginia particularly, had many ways in which they resisted slavery and tried to “self-emancipate” including organized rebellion, escaping to Union territory, and everyday acts of opposition (“1825 to 1861”). In 1831, one of the biggest slave revolts known as Nat Turner’s Rebellion took place in Southampton County, Virginia. An enslaved man by the name of Nathainel Turner led a group of over 50 slaves in the brutal murder of their owner, his family and 58 other white men, women, and children. While the rebellion was successful in seeking revenge on their enslavers it unfortunately ended with the execution of Nat Turner and 19 other rebels (“Nat Turner’s Rebellion”). The threat of violence from enslaved individuals, amplified by the Haitian Revolution and Nat Turner’s Rebellion, scared plantation owners and spurred the implementation of stricter slavery laws and harsher punishments for resistance as they sought to maintain control and suppress dissent. Anti-abolitionist sentiment also rose in Virginia as a result of slave rebellions with plantation owners fearing that freeing slaves would now not only mean economic collapse, but also violence and terror. However, despite efforts to stop it, resistance to slavery continued and in forms other than just organized rebellion. It was common for people enslaved on plantations to slow their work pace, break tools and steal food as acts of defiance. Additionally, slaves’ self-emancipated by running away to seek freedom elsewhere. While, we see this before the Civil War with the creation of the Underground Railroad sometime around 1831, the implementation of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 significantly increased the number of freedom seekers running away from their plantation’s. Being that Virginia was a border state and belonged to the Confederacy, hundreds of slaves in the region earned their freedom by escaping into Union territory including places like Fort Monroe and the Arlington House (Tarter). Even after escaping to Union territory where they were freed, black men and even women aided the Union in wartime efforts. As noted by Berlin in Who Freed the Slaves, “Hundreds of thousands of black men and women would work for the Union army, and more than 135,000 slave men became Union soldiers” (Berlin 111). Even though they had gained their freedom, the black population knew that Union victory was necessary for them to keep it. 

Education has always been seen as a form of resistance. During the Civil War, enslaved and free men and women alike used education as a way to rebel against the systematic oppression. The literacy of African Americans during the war had a major impact on their culture and traditions as well. Enslaved people were always literate in the United States, in fact, some were learning how to read as early as 1720 in Chesapeake, Virginia (Bly, 6). These skills were often cherished and supported throughout the enslaved communities. And sometimes, those who were literate were considered to be dangerous, as they were more likely to runaway or seek freedom. Bly states, “ As my recent study of runaways and literacy in early America demonstrates, enslaved Virginians between the 1730s and 1760s, if not earlier, used what lessons they learned in reading as a way toward mastering writing and perhaps even penmanship. Either way, in those bold acts of learning how to write themselves free, they broke with the prevailing social customs of the day that held fast the belief that colonials of African descent were a people devoid of print and letters “ (Bly, 6). Education was a way for enslaved people to have a sense of autonomy over themselves, and it was a skill in which they used to garner for their freedom. The fight for education for African Americans in the United States did not end here, but it would rather continue up until the present.

First page of a letter from an unidentified slave to his mother, October 8, 1859. (The Gilder Lehrman Collection)

The End of the War 

After four years of fighting the Confederate army surrendered to the Union army in Virginia in 1864. The end of the civil war resulted in the emancipation of all enslaved people in Virginia and the entire nation. While the Emancipation Proclamation had already been issued, the 13^th amendment was added to the Constitution on January 31^st of 1865 which officially abolished slavery across the nation stating, “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction” (“13^th Amendment”). The state of Virginia ratified the 13^th amendment on February 6^th of 1865 (Tarter). 

Successes & Failures 

The lasting effects of the American Civil War are quite extensive. During Reconstruction –the period following the Civil War and Emancipation– several extreme racists groups began to rise in power, such as the Klu Klux Klan. But in order to understand why such extremists gained political power during this period, it is important to comprehend the successes and failures of Emancipation. 

One of the most common misconceptions of Emancipation is that Lincoln, in 1863, freed all of the enslaved people in the United States, but this is untrue. To quote Ira Berlin, “Lincoln’s proclamation of January 1, 1863, as its critics have noted, freed not a single slave who was not already entitled to freedom under legislation passed by Congress the previous year” (Berlin, 108). Emancipation only applied to those enslaved in confederate territories, which were beyond the reach of Federal authority at that time. Emancipation was also not achieved by a singular group or person. Several groups aided Lincoln and the enslaved peoples in achieving Emancipation, such as white union soldiers, their families, abolitionists and non-abolitionists in the North, congressmen, and even slaveholders in the South (Berlin, 120). Emancipation was also not written into law –that is, into the United States Constitution– until 1865 with the 13th amendment. Therefore it was written into law in 1865 that, “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction” (National Archives). The other amendments pertaining to the rights of freedmen extend to the 14th and 15th amendments, both passed in 1868 respectively. The 14th amendment states, “All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws” (National Archives). This was the beginning of birthright citizenship. The 15th amendment is defined as, “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” (National Archives). While the abolishment of slavery in the United States was without a doubt a success of Emancipation, there would come several key factors that could be defined as failures in the following years. 

Understanding the failures of Emancipation begins with an introduction of Jim Crow laws and how they came to fruition, and then subsequently evolved into what Americans recognize as the struggle for Civil Rights. In the years following Reconstruction, People of Color experienced radical changes in their liberties and rights. This was caused by a rise in white supremacy among many southern white people who were not satisfied with the outcome of the Civil War. In Virginia specifically –where the capital of the Confederacy resided– many white citizens did not identify with the Union, but rather held onto their confederate ties. These trends, which are still visible today, began as early as the 1890s. Brent Tarter states, “Early in 1890 the Confederate Memorial Literary Society opened a museum in the house in downtown Richmond that had served as the residence of Jefferson Davis during the Civil War. In May of that year the state erected a large, dignified equestrian statue of Robert E. Lee that people hauled ceremoniously through the streets of Richmond and placed at the edge of a cornfield…Nobody in Virginia ever erected a comparable monument to the abolition of slavery” (Tarter, 316). Despite enslaved people fighting in the Civil War, Virginia decided to raise a statue to honor the man who enslaved them. Jim Crow saw an era of disenfranchisement for Black people. People of Color were paid lower wages than their white counterparts for the same labor, if not in more dangerous working conditions than the latter (Tarter, 318). Most –if not all– Americans know about segregation. However, most probably do not consider it a failure of Emancipation. Jim Crow laws are an example of just how disenfranchised freed Black people became post-Civil War and post Emancipation. 

“Equal But Separate?” 

Different examples of Jim Crow laws can best be summed up by Plessy v. Fergueson, a Supreme Court case that you probably learned in your high school American history class.  Plessy v. Ferguson illustrates how the years following Emancipation proved that freedom was not the ideal previously conceived. To summarize, the court upheld a law that required separate train cars for Black people and white people, claiming that it did not violate the 14th amendment. (Oyez). For Black people to have to endure this racial discrimination, basic human rights violations, and societal abuse for years following Emancipation demonstrates the institutional racism that did not dissolve with the case for abolition. Racism was entrenched into US law, specifically meant to harm Black communities and individuals. Emancipation abolished slavery, but the freed individuals did not see true freedom for nearly a hundred years. 

Sources

Berlin, Ira. “Who Freed the Slaves? Emancipation and Its Meaning.” Chapter 5, 1997, https://moodle.elon.edu/pluginfile.php/3353505/mod_resource/content/1/Berlin%2C%20Who%20Freed%20the%20Slaves.pdf  

Bly, Antonio T. “‘Reed through the Bybell’: Slave Education in Early Virginia.” Book History, vol. 16, 2013, pp. 1–33. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42705779. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025.

Lincoln, Abraham. “Emancipation Proclamation.” National Archives, 1 Jan 1863, www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation/transcript.html. 

McPherson, James. “A Brief Overview of the American Civil War.” American Battlefield Trust, www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/brief-overview-american-civil-war. 

“Nat Turner’s Rebellion.” National Museum of African American History and Culture,  nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/nat-turners-rebellion. 

National Archives. “14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Civil Rights (1868).” National Archives, 7 Sept. 2021, www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/14th-amendment.

Oyez. “Plessy v. Ferguson.” Oyez, 2019, www.oyez.org/cases/1850-1900/163us537.

Sanchez, Adam. “Teaching the Complex History of Abolition and the Civil War.” American Federation of Teachers, 26 Sept. 2019, www.aft.org/ae/fall2019/sanchez.

Tarter, Brent. “The Abolition of Slavery in Virginia – Encyclopedia Virginia.” Encyclopedia Virginia, 9 Feb. 2023, encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/the-abolition-of-slavery-in-virginia/#:~:text=Its%20Constitution%20of%201863%20included,in%201864%2C%20that%20abolished%20slavery. 

​​Tarter, Brent. “Jim Crow Virginia.” Virginians and Their Histories, University of Virginia Press, 2020, pp. 315–32. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvxkn6m7.19. Accessed 16 Jan. 2025.

“13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery.” National Archives, 1865, www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/13th-amendment. 

—. “15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Voting Rights (1870).” National Archives, 7 Sept. 2021, www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/15th-amendment.

“1825 to 1861: Slavery.” Virginia Museum of History & Culture,  https://virginiahistory.org/learn/story-of-virginia/chapter/slavery#:~:text=Some%20enslaved%20Virginians%20instigated%20organized,%2C%20slowing%20the%20work%2Dpace. 

Introduction 

The institution of slavery, specifically in the American South, was characterized by brutal violence and systemic oppression. Physical punishments and the stripping of autonomy were routine methods used to maintain the social order and racial hierarchy of the slave trade. For enslavers, the denial of education to enslaved people became a powerful tool of subjugation. However, enslaved peoples recognized the importance of literacy and knowledge in resistance, empowerment, and the overall fight for freedom. Despite the severe consequences if caught, enslaved individuals risked their lives to learn to read and write, and free Black communities worked tirelessly to establish schools and advocate for educational rights. The fight for access to education became a vital aspect of the broader struggle for freedom and equality, and continued even after emancipation.

The African Gally 

In late October of 1705, the African Gally, a British slave ship captained by Francis Bond and Saunders, pulled out of a port in Bristol and headed for the West African coast (SlaveVoyages). While the Triangle Trade held promises of valuable metals and raw materials such as gold, ivory, redwood, and wax, what this particular voyage was interested in was slaves. Prior to this voyage Francis Bond had captained two other slave trips, the “Unity” to Barbados in 1701 and then again in 1702 (SlaveVoyages).   

Map of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade that shows common travel routes between Europe, Africa, and the Americas (“African History in Maps: Atlantic Slave Trade and Abolition,” 19^th century). 

The Horrors of Enslavement and the Erasure of Humanity

Sometime between October of 1705 and September of 1706 the African Gally landed in a port along the Bright of Biafra in West Africa, likely near modern day Guinea. It is here that 245 enslaved Africans were bought and boarded onto the slave ship destined for Virginia (SlaveVoyages). In the midst of the slave trade, as Hartman notes in Lose Your Mother, Africans became enslaved from war, raiding, commercialized agreements between African royals and Europeans, and the conquests of missionaries, mercenaries and privateers (Hartman 51). However, one of the most common circumstances of enslavement was captivity by another African. Africans residing in the west would capture Africans from the north, whom they believed to be barbaric and uncivilized, and make them travel hundreds of miles by foot in chains and hot weather with little to no food and water. The captives were brought to the coast where they were sold and traded to Europeans at slave markets and then transported to the Americas for plantation labor (Hartman 52). It was at these slave markets and holding dungeons that humans were stripped of their rights and reduced to property. Slaves were bound together or to walls by iron chains and rope and were packed together tightly into small spaces by the hundreds and thousands. Men were separated from women and children to reduce the threat of resistance and families were broken up. Slaves were whipped and beaten at the markets and after being sold and many were branded with a hot iron to mark who they belonged to, similarly to how cattle would be (Hartman 79). The worth of a slave was determined by many things such as their age, gender and ability. Depending on their value some slaves were held in the markets and dungeons for days and other weeks and even months. In these places food and water were scarce, and disease thickened the air. Many slaves grew ill and died before being sold or transported to their final destination. Dysentery was one of the most common diseases given that slaves were eating, sleeping and defecating in the same space. As Hartman writes, “Slavery was a state of death” (Hartman 111). The slaves’ pasts, identities and lives as they knew them were completely erased. At the slave markets and dungeons, the enslaved did not know what awaited them ahead, but they feared for their lives.   

Modern day image of a site in Africa where slave markets were held during the height of the slave trade (Berry, “A Signboard Reminding People of the Former Slave Market,” 2007). 

A Journey of Suffering and Loss

On September 24^th of 1706, after sailing for 328 days, the African Gally disembarked at a port in Virginia near the mouth of the York River (SlaveVoyages). The African Gally’s voyage across the Atlantic was horrifying and agonizing, marked by disease, violence, and torture. Unfortunately, of the 245 slaves that embarked the African Gally in West Africa, only 196 disembarked in Virginia. On the almost year-long voyage across the Middle Passage 20% of the African Gally’s enslaved peoples died (SlaveVoyages).

Image depicting the close living quarters of enslaved people on slave ships (“Stowage of the British Slave Ship ‘Brookes,’” 1788).

Violence and Oppression in the American South

Slavery, as an institution in America, spanned from the colonial period to well past the creation of the United States. Slavery, especially in the American south, was a systematically racist and brutal institution that lasted for more than 200 years. In the southern region of America, crop was king, and the majority of enslaved people belonged to the fields, working on plantations. Slavery in the south is defined by the cruel practices and brutal conditions placed upon the enslaved. On these plantations, violence was not uncommon. White plantation owners saw extreme violence as an effective way of preventing uprisings and keeping enslaved people “in line,” using racist ideology to justify their actions. The Equal Justice Initiative states, “…enslaved people frequently suffered extreme physical violence as punishment for or warning against transgressions like running away, failing to complete assigned tasks, visiting a spouse living on another plantation, learning to read, arguing with White people, working too slowly, possessing anti-slavery materials, or trying to prevent the sale of their relatives” (Equal Justice Initiative, 20). Enslaved people in America were severely oppressed, and their experiences were defined by violence and a lack of rights. 

Scars left behind by violent slave whippings that occurred on Southern plantations. During the Civil War this image was circulated in the North by abolitionists who used it as a campaign strategy for emancipation (“Scars from a Whipping on a Slave’s Back,” 1863). 

The Forced Submission of the Enslaved

The governments in the south, even during the post-colonial period, prohibited and restricted the rights and autonomy of enslaved people. As noted above, violence was commonly used to restrict the abilities of enslaved people, but other means were used as well such as banning the education of enslaved people and their children. In the U.S., especially in the South, the education of enslaved people was strictly prohibited. White citizens and plantation owners feared that literate and educated slaves posed a threat to the system, enabling them to communicate and spread ideas more easily and weakening their dependence on their enslavers. Many believed that the education of enslaved peoples would lead to uprisings and extreme violence against enslavers. As a result, anti-literacy laws were passed which made it illegal for enslaved people and even freed people of color to read and write. Other laws were implemented that made it a crime to teach an enslaved person. An example of one of these anti-literacy laws is the South Carolina Act of 1740 which stated, “Whereas, the having slaves taught to write, or suffering them to be employed in writing, may be attended with great inconveniences; Be it enacted, that all and every person and persons whatsoever, who shall hereafter teach or cause any slave or slaves to be taught to write, or shall use or employ any slave as a scribe, in any manner of writing whatsoever, hereafter taught to write, every such person or persons shall, for every such offense, forfeit the sum of one hundred pounds, current money” (“Image 1 of the Negro Law of South Carolina”). By passing anti-literacy laws such as these enslavers were able to limit slaves’ capacity for independence and resistance through taking away their ability to communicate and establish organized plans and ideas. Preventing education was one medium for legally oppressing enslaved people throughout the U.S and its legacies are still felt in America even today.

The Vital Role of Education in Resistance and Freedom

Enslaved people had known freedom before they were forcibly removed from their homes and taken to North America against their will. Because of this, they not only had hope for their eventual freedom, but they were willing to fight for it. Slave resistance took on all forms, ranging from organized rebellions to small acts of defiance. One of the largest slave uprisings was the Stono Rebellion of 1739 which took place in Charleston, South Carolina. The rebellion consisted of between 60 to 100 Black people and resulted in the death of 20 White people and 40 Black rebels (Elliot and Hughes).  

Newspaper article depicting enslavers’ fears of slave rebellions (“Effect of John Brown’s Invasion at the South,” 1859). 

However, not all forms of slave resistance were violent. One way that many people resisted slavery was by secretly attending school to learn to read and write despite it being prohibited. While they had to be careful not to get caught as their actions were punishable by whippings, enslaved children and even adults were able to get an education through lessons in makeshift and “underground” schools. Learning how to read and write and thus communicate enabled enslaved people to spread messages and better fight for their freedom (Ealey). This important concept was recognized by both enslaved people and their enslavers which is why slaves took on such risks to get an education and enslavers punishments literacy were so extreme.

Literacy was slaves’ secret weapon. It put them on the same playing field as their enslavers and it allowed them to take back part of their humanity when so much of who they were and where they came from was stripped away. As Gibran writes, “You may chain my hands, you may shackle my feet; you may even throw me into a dark prison; but you shall not enslave my thinking, because it is free!” (Ealey). This shows the lengths slaves would go to get an education and why they felt it was worth it.

For people like Susie King and Fredrick Douglass, education and literacy played a role in an even bigger fight for freedom. Learning to read and write at a young age from his enslaver’s wife and White children in his community, Fredrick Douglass went on to use his education in becoming an abolitionist. Douglass’ literacy enabled him to write essays, speeches, and political works speaking out against slavery and advocating for abolition and emancipation in the U.S. (Ealey). Susie King who, as an enslaved child attended secret schools run by Black women in her community, was able to escape her enslaver and at 14 years old used her education to become the first teacher to openly educate African Americans. During the Civil War King also served as a nurse for the Union Army and after the war ended spent her life continuing to teach African Americans in a variety of settings (“Susie King Taylor”). While getting an education was not violent, it was a very effective and successful form of resistance during the height of slavery in the south. Knowledge really was power for enslaved individuals and revolutionized the fight for freedom, acting as a unifying force and weapon that could not be taken away. 

Sources

African History in Maps: Atlantic Slave Trade and Abolition. 19th C. JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.13556993. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025. 

ANONYMOUS / GREAT BRITAIN (late XVIII century), artist. Print. Stowage of the British Slave Ship “Brookes” under the Regulated Slave Trade Act of 1788. Engraving; Support: Paper, ca. 1788. WASHINGTON, D.~C, Library of Congress., JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.14786859. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025. 

ANONYMOUS / UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (3rd quarter XIX century), artist. Print. Illustration for Harper’s Weekly 3, No. 151 (19 November 1859), p. 737: “Effect of John Brown’s Invasion at the South.” Wood engraving, 19 November 1859. HOUSTON (TX), Collection: Ménil Foundation Collection., JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.14776739. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025. 

Atlantic Slave Trade (Legend). c.1808. JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.13560807. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025. 

Ealey, Shani. “Literacy by Any Means Necessary: The History of Anti-Literacy Laws in the U.S – Oakland Literacy Coalition.” Oakland Literacy Coalition, 29 Jan. 2024, oaklandliteracycoalition.org/literacy-by-any-means-necessary-the-history-of-anti-literacy-laws-in-the-u-s/#:~:text=Anti%2Dliteracy%20laws%20made%20it,color%20to%20read%20or%20write.  

Equal Justice Initiative. “SLAVERY IN AMERICA.” SLAVERY IN AMERICA: THE MONTGOMERY SLAVE TRADE, Equal Justice Initiative, 2018, pp. 8–30. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep30693.4. Accessed 10 Jan. 2025. 

Elliot, Mary, and Jazmine Hughes. “A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn’t Learn in School.” The New York Times, 19 Aug. 2019, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html. 

Hartman, Saidiya. Lose Your Mother: A Journey Along the Atlantic Slave Route. 1st ed, New York, Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2008. 

Ian Berry. Ghana.  Salaga.  A Signboard Reminding People of the Former Slave Market. 2007. JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.18959353. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025. 

“Image 1 of the Negro Law of South Carolina,.” The Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/resource/gdcmassbookdig.negrolawofsouthc00onea/?st=pdf&pdfPage=10. 

Richardson, David. Bristol, Africa and the Eighteenth-Century Slave Trade to America, Vol. 1: The Years of Expansion, 1698-1729. Internet Archive, 1986, archive.org/details/bristol-record-society-38/page/n17/mode/2up. 

Scars from a Whipping on a Slave’s Back. 1863. JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.13732880. Accessed 23 Jan. 2025. 

Smith, Venture. A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Venture, a Native of Africa: But Resident Above Sixty Years in the United States of America. Related by Himself. 1798. docsouth.unc.edu/neh/venture/venture.html.  

“Susie King Taylor.” American Battlefield Trust, www.battlefields.org/learn/biographies/susie-taylor. 

Voyage Information. www.slavevoyages.org/voyage/16016